21st Century Jerusalem (Lecture 3.10.11)

The last decade has been a tumultuous time in Israeli-Arab relations. Much has happened and it seems that the 21st century will be a crucial time for the region.

After the 6 day war, Israel returns the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for peace. Tragedy struck in 2001, when the United States was hit with a terrorist attack on September, 11. This resulted in the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. In 2002, due to the increasing escalation in the region, Israel constructs the West Bank Barrier for safety purposes. However, this only further increases tension between the 2 sides. In 2004, Yassar Arafat dies and his corruption exposed. This causes a backlash against his political party, Fatah. In 2005, Israel removes Israeli citizens from the Gaza Strip and returns it to Palestine. Hamas, denounced as a terrorist organization by the UN and many nations, win the Palestinian elections. Nations refuse to recognize Hamas and Palestine is left with no government, no money, no aid, and no economy. This combined with the Israeli blockade cause the Palestinian citizens to suffer. Due to terrorist attacks coming from the recently turned over Gaza Strip, Israel enforces Operation Cast Lead and fires rockets into Gaza. The resulting conflict and Palestinian civil War culminates in 2009 with Hamas taking over the Gaza Strip and Fatah taking over the West Bank. Today, tensions are still alarmingly high due to the recent conflicts as well as Israel announcing new housing settlements in East Jerusalem. Continued tension and conflict in the region between Israel and the Middle East cause events such as the 2010 IHH Gaza Flotilla incident where a "humanitarian" flotilla was boarded by Israeli troops who were in return, attacked. The Israeli troops responded in kind and 9 deaths occurred. The increase in housing settlements and singular events such as the Flotilla incident serve to only exacerbate conflict in the region.

After having taken this course, I for one, am excited and hopeful to see headway made towards peace in the region. It will be difficult, but I believe in time, it can be done. The deep-seated resentment between the 2 sides (the Israelis and the Palestinians) due to years and years of conflict may be harder to wash away; however, in this too, I am hopeful.

20th Century Zionism (Lecture 3.3.11)

Zionism starts back with Saladin allowing the Jews to resettled. He is then depicted as the new King Cyrus, a nonDavidic messiah. The Jews are also given the Maghribi Quarter. Judah Halevi encourages Aliyah and asserts that the Gate of Heaven is in Jerusalem. Maimonides (Rambam), an Egyptian physician, aid that the Haram had to be treated as if the temple still stood and that the divine presence could not be banished from the Temple Mount.

Spanish expulsion of anyone not Christian including Jews led to a mass migration of Jews to Jerusalem. In 1860, Sir Moses Montefiore, a British Jew funded by American Jews, completed the Mishkenot Sha'ananim: the first settlement in western Jerusalem. Zionism soon expanded to included non-religious Jews and the Secular Zionist movement also grew. in 1840, many secular Jews began buying up land in Palestine for Jews and were considered very unpious by many Orthodox Jews. Theodore Herzl, the father of Zionism, wrote Jewish State and advocated for a Jewish state anywhere, not necessarily Jerusalem. He proposed a Ugandan Jewish State. In 1899, there was the first Zionist Conference and Herzl was referenced as the new Messiah. The Zionists ended up creating Tel Aviv. The early 20th Century brought about much anti-Semitism instigated by Catholics. Jews begin to flee to Palestine. There is a 2nd Aliyah in 1902 as Jews flee Eastern Europe and Russia. The increased immigration due to the rise of Hitler anti-Semitism caused an influx of Jews into Jerusalem and Palestine which caused conflict with current Arabs.

The end of WWI in 1917 brought about the British Mandate of Jerusalem and Palestine via the Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916. France and Britain emerged the victors and divvied up the Ottoman and Austrian Empire between them. Britain ended up getting direct control of modern day Palestine, Jordan, Southern Iraq, Kuwait and more. In 1917, the Balfour Declaration voiced Britain's favor with a Jewish national homeland. Conflict over this between the Jews and the Arabs caused the release of Churchill's White Paper in 1922. After an investigation, he asserted that Britain supported a Jewish community in Palestine but not necessarily a Jewish national homeland. In 1922, Britain partitions the area west of Jordan River, calls it the Transjordan and puts King Abdullah I as a puppet ruler.

The population increase in Palestine due to Hitler and anti-Semitism instigated the Peel Commission in 1937. Several militant Jewish factions grew in response to the violence between the Arabs and Jews before WWII. The Haganah were a revisionist Zionist liberation arm. The Irgun were a radical, terrorist group and the Lehi were freedom fighters for Israel. The Peel Commission proposed a 2-state solution where teh Arabs would get the Central Hills, the West Bank, and the Negrev. Israel would get Galilee, Upper Jordan and the Coastal Plains. The UN accepts this proposal and so do the Zionists (although they stated it was the bare minimum). The Arabs however, reject it.

Eventually Britain gives up and pulls out. The day that they do is March 15, 1948. This marks the beginning of the Arab-Israeli War. The Jews immediately launched into Operation Pitchfork and proclaimed the State of Israel. The Jordanian army arrives a day later and fighting ensues. Eventually, an armistice is called a year later and a Green Line is formed. Israel and the Jordanian held West Bank.
Jordan controls East/Arab Jerusalem and Israel controls West Jerusalem. Ben Gurion also states that West Jerusalem is now the capital of the State of Israel because Jerusalem is central to the Jewish identity. A few years later, King Abdullah is assassinated in front of the Al-Aqsa Mosque and King Hussein declares Jerusalem to be the 2nd capital of Jordan. He also developed Tourism and about 85% of the economy in the West Bank is tourism.

In 1967, the Soviet Union informs Syria of an impending Israeli attack. Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Egypt (all surrounding Israel) combine to preemptively attack Israel.  So Israel prepempts the Arab nation's pre-emptive strike. Within hours, they completely destroy the Egyptian air force. Israelis enter the Old City and annexes all of Jerusalem. But Moshe Dayan, however, gives Muslims the Haram al-Sharif because Jews are forbidden on it anyways. Israel also takes the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights (which has really good, fertile volcanic soil). Eventually, Israel gives Egypt back the Sinai peninsula in exchange for peace.

Nearing the end of the 20th Century, the Intifada , or Uprising, of the Palestinians occurred. The Olso Accords, or Declaration of Principles was the first face to face agreement between Israel and the PLO. It allowed for the creation of a Palestinian national government and the Israelis agreed to withdraw form Gaza and the West Bank as well. The 2 sides both agreed to mutually recognize each other, but Israel only agreed to recognize Arafat as the Palestinian leaders. Afterwards, the Israeli prime minister was assassinated by a Jew and the State of Palestine was declared. 

Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem (Lecture 3.1.11)

Mamluk Jerusalem, while separated, is still technically Islamic Jerusalem, as the Mamluks were Muslims themselves. Mamluks were soldiers of slave origins who had converted to Islam. They were an extraordinarily long-lived grassroots military movement. They set Jerusalem as a Ziyara, an alternative site to visit instead of a formal visit to Mecca. They often used Crusader buildings as materials to build their new structures. However, they only built 2 new mosques during this time period.

The Al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya was built during this period. It was a Qur'anic school and considered to be the 3rd Jewel of Jerusalem after the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. It was built in 1482 by al-Ashraf Qaitbey. The Ghawanima Minert was also built 1298. The Mamluks reused Crusader columns and capitals to build minarets that played the "calls to prayer". The Haram al-Sharif was extensively remodeled. Towers were built on the corners, minarets were added and the Dome and the Mosque were restored.

The Jewish Quarter during this time continued to grow as a spiritual center. Nachmanides (Ramban) finds synagoge and asserts Aliyah: commandment to pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He also develops Kabbalah (Jewish Mysticism). He was kicked out of Spain due to his railings against Christianity. Because of his assertions of Aliyah, he is technically a zionist. He had very aggressive refutation of Christianity.

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Ottomon Jerusalem followed the defeat of the Mamluks in 1517. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent reigned from 1520-1566 CE and had massive building projects. He repaired and enlarged all the aqueducts, rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem (2 miles long, 40 feet high, with 34 towers and 7 gates), he also extensively refurbished the Haram al-Sharif and all its monuments. He wanted to make Jerusalem truly the 3rd greatest city in Islam. He established Shari'a law. But he also encouraged Jewish refugees to settle in Jerusalem and restore the city. The Jews had no special taxes under Suleiman and all holy sites were restored under his reign, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Islamic Jerusalem (Lecture 2.24.11)

The Byzantine Empire eventually falls and Islam takes over Jerusalem. Islamic Jerusalem reigns from 638 CE until 1099, when the Crusaders retake Jerusalem.

The Sasanians take Jerusalem and Palestine in 628 CE. They allow the Jews to resettle (who've been exiled since the Bar-Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE). The Sasanians are the last of the pre-Islamic Persian Empire.

In 628, however, Byzantine Emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem from the Sasanians and massacre the Jews in Jerusalem. This is an example of the Byzantine Christians and not Arabs keeping the Jews out of Jerusalem.

Islam starts with the prophet Muhammad. Since he leaves no heir, there is some slight dissents about Caliphs should lead next. Abu Bakr follows and then Caliph Umar, Uthamn and then a division between Ali and Mu'awiya. Ali leads the sects that will eventually become the Shi'ites - kinship based Islam. Mu'awiya leads the sect that eventually becomes the Sunnis - tradition based Islam.

During this time, Jerusalem is still called the Aelia from the Romans. The Muslims then call it Bait Maqdis, or the City of the Holy House. It is then later shortened to al-Quds, or the Holy. The Temple Mount is renamed as well to become the Haram al-Sharif or the Noble Sanctuary.

Some information about Islam

The Qibla is a direction of prayer

The Mihrab is the niche in the building that points to the direction of prayer

The Kaaba is a cube-shaped building in Mecca. It was a pagan shrine before Islam (another example of a sacred site retaining its holiness). All Muslims face towards the Kaaba during prayer.

The 5 Pillars of Islam consists of Shahada: testimony or witness, Salat: prayer, Zakat: almsgiving, Sawm: fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca. There is speculation that Jihad used to be on the list but was removed.

The Umayyad Dynasty reigns from 638 to 750 CE. They rule out of Damascus. Caliph Umar builds a wooden Mosque which later becomes the site for the Al-Aqsa Mosque. Abd al-Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE to divert pilgrimage from Mecca to Jerusalem. Under their reign, there is tolerance of Christians and Jews in Jerusalem.

Dome of the Rock

It is an octagonal building with no graven images. Thus, there is intricate geometric design and calligraphy for decoration. The mosaic inscription around the interior and entrances of the Dome refute Christianity's view of Jesus; but the inscriptions confirm him as a prophet, just not a God. It was commissioned in 687 and built in 691 CE. Abd al-Malik hired Christian architects to build it and taxed Egypt for 7 years to raise the funds. They had extra funds left over and used this excess to plate the Dome in pure gold. The Dome of the Rock is later damaged by earthquakes and the plates of gold were removed to help pay to fix the Dome. In 1099, the Crusaders conquer Jerusalem and convert the Dome of the Rock into a Church. In 1187, Salah ad-Din retakes Jerusalem and restores the Dome. Stories and traditions of the Dome include the Night Journey, or the Miraj. It is said that Muhammad leapt to heaven upon a winged horse, al-Buraq from the Dome. He traveled from the mosque in Mecca to the al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. This verse in the Qu'ran cements the importance of Jerusalem in the Islamic faith. Under the Dome of the Rock is also supposed to the Well of Souls or Axis to Hell.

Dome of the Chain

It is the geometric center of the Haram al-Sharif and is the place where the Final Judgment will occur. The tradition is that only true men can grab the chain. A false man will not be able to.

Al-Aqsa Mosque

It was built in 715 by Caliph Walid (son of Abd al-Malik). It is rumored to be built above the "Stables of Solomon" and is built above Caliph Umar's wooden mosque. It suffered earthquake damage in 1033 but was rebuilt. It said that prayer here is worth 500 prayers elsewhere.

The Abbasids ruled the Islamic Empire from 750 - 969 CE. They ruled out of Babylon, or modern day Baghdad. They tried to wipe out the memory of the Umayyads by claiming their accomplishments. An example of such was Caliph Al Ma-mun taking credit for the Dome of the Rock by changing the inscription to his name, but he forgot to change the date of construction. The Abbasids were less tolerant of Christianity. In fact, the Governor of Jerusalem killed John, the Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem in 965 CE.

The Abbasids were followed by the Fatamids who ruled from 969 CE to the time of the Crusaders in 1099 CE. They ruled out Egypt and were not Sunni Muslims like previous rulers, but Ishmaelis instead. During their reign, the population of Jerusalem increased, but it was a much more tumultuous time. Caliph al-Hakim destroys all the Jewish and Christian houses prayer, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and an earthquake damages the Dome of the Rock and Jerusalem's walls. From 1070-1098 CE, the Seljuqs occupy Jerusalem and loot and massacre by the thousands. In 1098, the Fatamids lay a 40 day siege on Jerusalem, ends up destroying the city's walls but retaking the city from the Turks.

Byzantine Jerusalem (Lecture 2.22.11)

Byzantine Rule overlapped Roman Rule due to the Great Schism that caused the Roman Empire to split into two. The Byzantine Empire lasted until 637 CE while the Roman Empire lasted until 614 CE.

There was increasing Hellenization of Christianity. Jesus preached about spiritualization of the faith. It was about how you acted, not where you prayed. Soon controversy occurred. There was a clash between the old Jewish faiths and the new Christian tenets. Constantine the Great legalizes Christianity in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan. The Council of Nicea is then called in 324 to decide on a formal canon for Christianity. This was based on the Hellenistic idea that there was only 1 correct way. Constantine makes the capital of the Byzantine Empire Constantinople which later becomes Istanbul.

Helena (Constantine's mother) decides to come to Jerusalem in 324, initiating Christian pilgrimages. She rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and it becomes the new axis mundi of Christianity.

Julian the "Apostate" rejects Christianity and tries to rebuild the Jewish Temple (stopped due to earthquake).

Theodosius comes after and names Christianity the State Religion. His wife, Eudocia also goes on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and builds churches and hospitals.

Justinian creates the Nea or "New" Church, in honor of St. Mary, mother of God. The biblical description of the Nea Church is very similar to the description of the Temple. He also builds the Church of the Holy Zion and expanded the Cardo.

Pilgrim of Bordeaux in 333 CE : oldest account of pilgrimages

Madaba Map (6th Century CE)
East is always up in ancient maps. The Temple Mount is no longer the center of Jerusalem maps because it is no longer the center of the dominant faith. Instead, Christianity reigns and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is in the Center along with the Cardo.

Jerusalem in Revolt (Lecture 2.17.11)

After Jerusalem falls under Roman Rule, there are 2 great revolts that eventually lead to the destruction of the 2nd Temple and the banishment of Jews from Palestine. These events are chronicled by a historian by Josephus, who was very pro-Rome.

Herod's Legacy: Division of his Kingdom

Herod had 3 sons to whom inherited his Kingdom. Archelaus became ethnarch of Judea and received the lands of Judea and Samaria. He was highly ineffective and eventually exiled. Herod Antipas was a tetrarch and got the North, Galilee and Perea. He was also exiled after a time. Herod Phillip was a tetrarch as well but worst NW parts of Ituraea and Trachonitis. It did have good volcanic soil once the Jews drained the swamp. He was so far removed from Jerusalem that he was able to put his own image on his coins. Due to the ineffective leadership, eventually procurators (direct Roman governors) take over. An example of one was Pontius Pilate. He was a Roman Governor of Judea. [Found inscription that proves his existence] He is known for having tried Jesus and ordering his execution. The ineptitude of the leadership caused the 1st Jewish Revolt in 66 CE. For 4 years, the Jewish militants were able to revolt and even minted their own coins. The Romans send Vespasian to conquer Galilee in 67 CE. He wipes out the Jewish forces there and captures Josephus.

Josephus was a military general in the Jewish revolt. Seeing that the end was near, he and his unit formed a suicide pact. He however, chickened out and claimed to be a prophet instead and predicted that his captor, Vespasian would become the next emperor. After Nero died, Vespasian did become emperor and released Josephus to become a historian.

Titus (Vespasian's son) takes over for Vespasian in dealing with the Jewish revolt and takes Jerusalem and destroys the 2nd Temple on the 9th of Ab, 70 CE. He has the Arch of Titus built back in Rome to commemorate his victory. People did flee and there was a standoff with the Jewish rebels at Masada. After the Romans build a ramp to reach them, the holdouts commit mass suicide. With the Temple having been again destroyed, cognitive dissonance arises once more. It lays in ruins until Emperor Hadrian rebuilds it into the Temple of Jupiter in 135 CE. In addition, Vespasian continues having every Jew pay a half-shekel Temple Tax even though the Temple no longer stands. Thus, the causes of the 1st revolt were because of infighting due to messianic conflicts and ineffective government.

The 2nd Jewish Revolt was called the Bar-Kokhba Revolt. This revolt was also a failure and shorter lived than the first revolt. They also tried to mint coins but the spelling was wrong or the letters would be in multiple languages. Not having enough of their own silver to mint, they would simply re-stamp over Roman coins. Year 1-3 coins exist. After the 2nd revolt failed, the Jews were punished heavily. Jerusalem was sacked and renamed and rebuilt as a Roman city, the Aelia Capitolina. The area was renamed from Judea to Syria-Palestine. Jews were forbidden to visit Jerusalem except for on the 9th of Ab to mourn their defeat. Circumcision was banned.

In order to deal with the destruction of the 2nd Temple, 2 main sects formed: The Pharisees (now modern Judaism) and the Christians (more spiritual). There became the rise of the synagogue: regional meeting places instead of the Temple. Everything became greater decentralized, which created rabbinic traditions: different canons of Jewish thoughts. Judaism embraced diversity whereas Christianity did not (they embraced a single canon). Instead of a religion of blood sacrifice, Judaism became a religion of the Book.

Roman Jerusalem (Lecture 2.15.2011)

Roman Jerusalem started after the defeat of the Hasmonean Dynasty. The Roman General, Pompey, annexes Jerusalem for Rome in 63 BCE. Hyrcanus is appointed as ethnarch: a ruler of an ethnicity or people. Antipater is chosen as a procurator (governor). Antipater is from Idumea, one of the surrounding regions that had been forcibly Judaized under the Hasmoneans. Pompey commits an Abomination of Desolation in 63 BCE by entering the Holy of Holies. Antipater is then murdered and his son, Herod, exacts revenge. Herod eventually fights the Parthians in the Parthian invasion and expels them. He asks for backing as King of Judea from Rome and Rome agrees. Herod becomes Herod the Great, client-king for Rome.

Herod the Great was at once a brutal dictator and a good king to Jerusalem. Having been Judaized, he knew Jewish tradition (no graven images, etc...) and could be sensitive to the Jews while currying favor with Rome. He was however, a brutal dictator (impulsive, paranoid and murdered everyone). He was an effective king for Rome, but was hated by the Jews. He is best known for his massive building projects. He expanded built the retaining wall around the Temple Mount which is the size of 15 football fields and consists of walls over 80 feet tall. He also built Caesarea, tribute to Rome, while far enough away from Jerusalem as to not anger the Jews. Having the technology of concrete that hardens under water, he also was able to build a port and lighthouse - the Caesarea Maritima. He also built the Herodion, located south of Jerusalem. He had built a massive mountain, after which the built the palace at the top down into the mountain. It is possible that he is buried there.

Despite having the Jews hate him, Herod was a good king. He was sensitive to Jewish customs and did not defile the Temple and allowed for the selection of the High Priest. He never put his face on coins and offered relief during famines, along with jobs due to his projects. He did however, collect taxes for the Romans and was only half-Jewish. Jesus was born several years before Herod's death and the time and life of Jesus existed during the Roman period of Jerusalem.